Autistic adults and their experiences with police personnel: a qualitative inquiry

Sample

A community-based sample was sought, as previous studies have paid attention to forensic populations. The population of interest is autistic adults who have encountered police personnel. The study is interested in potential victims, suspects, witnesses and ‘other’ populations. Participants were required to be Australian citizens and over the age of 18. To access this population of interest, a purposeful sampling method was used. Autism-affiliated organisations who were interested in dispersing the study information advertised the survey on their platforms. Additionally, equity services from two Perth universities shared the study information with autistic students who were in contact with their services. The sample reach was national, as the organisations were from a number of states within Australia.

Almost all contacts published the survey information through posting on their social media platforms and private forums, or through emailing potential participants. One organisation advertised the study information via flyers that were made accessible at a conference in Perth. Background information was provided along with a link to the online platform Qualtrics, on which the survey ran. Recruitment via advertisements posted on autism-associated organisations’ platforms was argued to be the most suitable method, due to the assumption that many individuals on the spectrum are likely to have some form of contact with a range of different organisations and support networks. Thus, the information advertised through these contacts is assumed to have reached the desired target population.

Materials

Data were obtained via an online, anonymous, semi-structured survey which collected open-ended and individualised responses. The survey is comprised of two sections. The first section asked closed questions such as the participant’s age, sex, age of diagnosis and age of contact with police. It also asked predominately fixed-response or short-answer questions regarding contextual and background factors. The following section asked open-ended questions which enquired into the participant’s experiences during police encounters. These questions focused on how the individual felt, what their thought processes were, how willing they would be to contact police in the future if they need assistance and their level of understanding during the interaction. Individual perspectives, attitudes and beliefs surrounding interactions with police were also sought, along with information surrounding the events leading up to contact with police, the events that occurred during and after the interaction and the outcome of the encounter. The questions were open-ended to avoid leading answers; thus, it was not explicitly asked if the individual’s experience with police was negative or if they experienced difficulties.

The survey was developed and made accessible on the survey platform Qualtrics. The online survey was developed by the primary researcher and constructed around the concept of experience. Experience is a multi-faceted concept, and therefore the inclusion of questions that attempted to inquire into different aspects of experience was important. Open-ended questions aimed to obtain responses from participants that enabled discussion of experience from their perspective of events in their own words. An open-ended survey was chosen over an in-person interview due to it being argued that autistic participants would be more likely to engage with it and be more comfortable in sharing potentially stressful experiences via this method.

Data collection

Autistic adults were invited to partake in the online, anonymous survey and detail the experiences they have previously had when encountering police personnel. The survey was estimated to have taken participants 15 to 30 minutes to complete. There were no constraints placed on the amount of time that a participant could take to complete the survey. Before commencing the survey, participants were provided with an information sheet and consent form, and they were invited to read it and provide informed consent before the commencement of the survey. Participants were informed that their participation in the survey was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any point up until submission. They were also informed that all of the information they provided would be anonymous and that all of the results presented in the final paper would be non-identifiable. The online survey was available for a total of three months, from August to November 2019, to ensure that there was enough time for interested individuals to undertake the survey.

Analysis

Participant demographics

The final sample consists of five participants. Table 1 reflects the diversity of the demographics and background factors of the sample.

The ages of the participants ranged from 18 to 31 years (M = 26.2). Four participants were male and one was female. The age of diagnosis of autism varies across the sample, with the youngest age of diagnosis being 3 years and the oldest being 31 years. Three participants were diagnosed after their initial interaction with police personnel, with the remaining two having been diagnosed in early childhood. Four participants reported being in a dependent living situation (either at home with family or in group accommodation). The remaining participant reported living independently. Two participants reported being employed.

The age of first contact with police personnel is varied. The participants who experienced their first contact with police personnel at ages over 20 years all reported just one interaction. The participants who experienced their first interaction with police at the ages of 10 and 14 years reported higher rates of contact – namely, 3 and 12 separate interactions, respectively.

Service access and community engagement

As reflected in Table 1, three participants reported having previously accessed services in the community. Perspectives of and experiences with these services varied. One participant reported their experiences with autistic-affiliated services, organisations and community groups to be positive. Another participant reported some services to be ‘good’ but noted that services for adults need to focus on more than just employment initiatives, asserting a desire for services to be made available that facilitate community engagement. The remaining participant reported some services as good and others as ‘not very good’. The two participants that answered ‘no’ were asked to select from a range of fixed-response options to aid in explaining why they had not previously accessed services in the community. An option to select ‘other’ and provide their own explanation was also available. One participant selected ‘don’t need them’ and the other answered ‘too difficult to access’.

Preliminary analysis of qualitative information

Due to the anonymity of the survey, once all analyses were completed the results were represented at a group level so that answers could not be linked to any specific participant. Therefore, themes are described generally and accompanied by example quotes.

Thematic coding

The initial text-search queries were compared with the manual thematic coding and categorisations of the verbatim responses. The preliminary themes were refined until the final themes were decided upon. The final categories and themes presented in Table 2 are reflective of both the text-search queries and the manual thematic coding of individual verbatim responses. Further corroborative support for the final themes and categories was provided through a second academic blind analysing the data and cross-referencing the themes arrived at.

Types of contact

The categorisation of police contact is based on individual descriptions of the events leading up to the interactions, what transpired and what the outcomes were. For the purpose of presenting the results, tentative categories were created and are discussed below.

Stopped and questioned

Nature of experience

Impact on individual

Information was sought regarding whether or not the participants, based on their past experiences with police, would feel comfortable seeking assistance from emergency services in the future. Four of the five participants reported being willing to seek help from police, albeit one appeared hesitant. The remaining participant – whose perspective of police was largely negative – reported preferring to avoid police personnel in general.

Contextual variables of contact

The sample characteristics of the present study – such as being male, reporting police contact in early adulthood and displaying a low-moderate level of community independence – reflect those of previous studies (e.g. Rava et al., 2017; Tint et al., 2017). Struggling to cope in the community has been highlighted in previous studies as a potential risk factor for individuals with autism encountering the CJS, and this is especially so if they are undiagnosed (Pearce & Berney, 2016; Rava et al., 2017). Three of the five participants were diagnosed in adulthood, with some participants only being diagnosed after their initial contact with the CJS. Most of the participants reported being in a dependent living situation and engaging in a low-moderate level of service usage. One individual reported feeling that service variety is limited, while another reported not having utilised services in the community due to them being too difficult to access. When diagnosed later in life, the level of service access available to autistic adults is restricted, resulting in the high levels of unmet needs reported by this population (Horlin et al., 2014). The sample characteristics of the present study reflect previous studies wherein background factors such as level of community engagement, level of independence, age of diagnosis and sex can be argued to be potential risk factors for the present study’s sample (e.g. Rava et al., 2017; Tint et al., 2017).

Various types of police contact were reported in this study, in which participants were potential victims, witnesses, suspects and/or missing persons. All of the reported police interactions occurred in the community. The most common form of contact was being stopped and questioned by police. This is reflective of previous studies, which have shown that autistic individuals are stopped and questioned by police personnel at disproportionate rates (Rava et al., 2017; Tint et al., 2017). Participants were stopped and questioned by police both randomly and purposefully, with all such interactions reported as negative experiences. Moreover, over half of the participants were stopped and questioned based on suspicion, which also aligns with previous findings, as autistic individuals’ behaviours are often misinterpreted and misperceived as suspicious (e.g. North et al., 2008; Pearce & Berney, 2016; Rava et al., 2017). One individual encountered police during childhood as a result of being a missing/wandering person. This is a common interaction as reported in the literature, especially for autistic adolescents and children (Debbaudt, 2001).

Nature of experience

The experiences reported by the participants were largely negative. Despite the diverse types of police encounters experienced across the sample, similarities in feelings and thoughts as well as low levels of understanding about the situation were expressed. Feelings related to anxiety, distress and fear were commonly reported, in line with the findings of previous studies (e.g. Helverschou et al., 2018; Salerno & Schuller, 2019). In the present study, it is clear that each participant had strong feelings about their encounters with police; four participants reported experiencing unfavourable emotional responses. Furthermore, police personnel appear to have not identified the presence of potential vulnerability and therefore accommodations and adjustments were not made, such as ensuring that the participants understood the circumstances and instructions. The limited understanding of events reported by all participants aligns with findings from previous research. For example, difficulties in understanding have been reported to be experienced by autistics within interview environments (e.g. Chown, 2010; Maras et al., 2014; North et al., 2008), throughout court proceedings (e.g. Maras et al., 2017) and within custodial settings (e.g. Helverschou et al., 2018). Autistic participants in previous research have reported high levels of dissatisfaction with police interactions, which are primarily attributed to an absence of explanation and clarity from police, resulting in high levels of emotional distress and low levels of understanding (Crane et al., 2016). Limited or no understanding of events is problematic, as it increases an individual’s vulnerability and can impact the level of adequate support and adjustments made for them.

Although some emotions such as anxiety and distress were a product of the type of encounter (for example, wandering persons), most of the participants attributed their negative feelings to their interactions with police. For example, the mere presence of police personnel made the majority of participants feel anxious. Some reported being fearful of a similar interaction occurring in the future. Previous studies have also emphasised high levels of negative emotions (e.g. Salerno & Schuller, 2019). Furthermore, high levels of anxiety and depression have frequently been reported within autistic populations (King & Murphy, 2014). It has been argued that police encounters, and their often stressful and unfamiliar nature, can intensify levels of anxiety and evoke a range of heightened emotions (Chown, 2010; North et al., 2008).

One participant, however, reported experiencing a positive interaction with police. A range of individual and contextual factors appear to have contributed to this outcome. At the time of the encounter, the participant was a minor and their parents contacted the police due to them being a missing person. Age and type of contact, combined with the fact that the parents informed the police of their child’s autism, are all likely to have impacted the police response and resulted in the favourable outcome.

Disclosure of diagnosis

The present study’s sample has a low rate of autism disclosure and/or identification, albeit that the parents informed the police of their child’s autism in the case of one participant. It is possible that this disclosure played a role in the favourable outcome that was obtained. In contrast to this experience, another participant reported disclosing their autism to police and receiving a negative reaction. This previous negative experience, coupled with the subsequent development of perspectives surrounding limited understanding and education within the police force on autism, resulted in the participant choosing to not disclose their autism during future interactions. This aligns with factors mentioned in previous research – namely, that individuals are less likely to disclose their autism to police if they have previously had a negative experience when disclosing, or if they perceive police personnel to not understand autism (e.g. Salerno & Schuller, 2019). It is important that autistic individuals feel comfortable in disclosing their autism to police, as doing so can influence how an interaction is approached (Crane et al., 2016). When an individual’s autism is made apparent to police personnel, adjustments and considerations of vulnerability are more likely to be made (Chown, 2010; Gardner et al., 2019). It is therefore argued that these individuals who either do not disclose or are undiagnosed are more likely to face difficulties when interacting with police personnel.

Impact on individual

Although some participants reported being fearful of experiencing a similar encounter with police again, all but one stated that they would still ask police for help if needed. However, at least two participants reported being hesitant about seeking assistance in the future, with one stating that they would rather avoid police contact in general. This is a topic that warrants further research, as previous negative experiences can impact an individual’s willingness to seek assistance or report victimisations, as well as impacting individual attitudes and beliefs held towards police personnel (Gardner et al., 2019; Salerno & Schuller, 2019).

Limitations

The most prominent limitation of this study is its small sample size. The limited amount of responses obtained has hindered the ability to draw strong inferences and arrive at solid conclusions based on the findings. The small number of responses makes it difficult to discuss results at a group level due to concerns surrounding anonymity. Coinciding with the small sample size is the limitation of reliance on the self-report of participants. Although subjectivity is not a concern or a limitation of the present study, reliance on self-report has still impacted the amount of information obtained due to data collection relying on participant willingness and engagement. Questions regarding individual socio-economic status and ethnicity were not included based on the assumption that the number of surveys returned would likely be small, and thus the inclusion and analysis of these factors would have been unlikely to provide much insight or contribution to the findings. However, it is acknowledged that these factors also play a role in influencing an individual’s risk of encountering the CJS, and thus such variables are recommended to be included in future research.

It can be argued that difficulties within society, as well as difficulties when interacting with the police and CJS personnel, are often experienced by socially vulnerable individuals who report receiving little support within the community (e.g. Helverschou et al., 2018). Moreover, many of those who encounter police are unaware of their autism at the time of initial contact (Pearce & Berney, 2016). These two factors may highlight a limitation of the present study’s recruitment method: if individuals interacting with police personnel at high rates are also reporting low rates of service usage and low rates of diagnosis, it is unlikely that they are in contact with autism-affiliated organisations. Therefore, recruiting through such organisations might not be the most appropriate method due to survey advertisements being unlikely to reach the desired population. It has been highlighted elsewhere how individuals belonging to vulnerable and often hidden populations are less accessible via traditional recruitment methods (e.g. Ellard-Gray et al., 2015). Therefore, the consideration of other more suitable recruitment options is important. Future research must take this into account before the commencement of data collection in order to obtain larger samples that allow this important topic of inquiry to be examined sufficiently.

Declaration of conflict of interests

Sophia Calton has declared no conflicts of interest.

Guy Hall has declared no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Murdoch University Human Research Ethics Committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained by all participants included in this study.