Numeric and Mathematical Modules

The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functions and data types. The numbers module defines an abstract hierarchy of numeric types. The math and cmath modules contain various mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. The decimal module supports exact representations of decimal numbers, using arbitrary precision arithmetic.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

• numbers — Numeric abstract base classes
  • The numeric tower
  • Notes for type implementers
    • Adding More Numeric ABCs
    • Implementing the arithmetic operations
• math — Mathematical functions
  • Number-theoretic functions
  • Floating point arithmetic
  • Floating point manipulation functions
  • Power, exponential and logarithmic functions
  • Summation and product functions
  • Angular conversion
  • Trigonometric functions
  • Hyperbolic functions
  • Special functions
  • Constants
• cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
  • Conversions to and from polar coordinates
  • Power and logarithmic functions
  • Trigonometric functions
  • Hyperbolic functions
  • Classification functions
  • Constants
• decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
  • Quick-start Tutorial
  • Decimal objects
    • Logical operands
  • Context objects
  • Constants
  • Rounding modes
  • Signals
  • Floating-Point Notes
    • Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
    • Special values
  • Working with threads
  • Recipes
  • Decimal FAQ
• fractions — Rational numbers
• random — Generate pseudo-random numbers
  • Bookkeeping functions
  • Functions for bytes
  • Functions for integers
  • Functions for sequences
  • Discrete distributions
  • Real-valued distributions
  • Alternative Generator
  • Notes on Reproducibility
  • Examples
  • Recipes
  • Command-line usage
  • Command-line example
• statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
  • Averages and measures of central location
  • Measures of spread
  • Statistics for relations between two inputs
  • Function details
  • Exceptions
  • NormalDist objects
  • Examples and Recipes
    • Classic probability problems
    • Monte Carlo inputs for simulations
    • Approximating binomial distributions
    • Naive bayesian classifier